Failure mode effect analysis (FMEA) techniques help the design team to study the causes and effects of product failures. FMEA specifies the various conditions the product will endure, and tests, how it reacts under those conditions, allowing designers to plan a product that will withstand a broader range.
Experiential. Authors' knowledge.
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Continually observe and correct problems or errors made by team members to improve the quality of decision making and implementation.
Literature review
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Detect problems early and communicate “fixes”
Survey.
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Failure Knowledge Network (FKN) — captures and inter-relates mechanical product quality knowledge from five areas: (i) the connection between failures and product functions, (ii) the relationship between failures and product components, (iii) the correlation between failures and organizations, (iv) the association between failures and product processes, and (v) the conjunction among different failures. FKN information is represented in a four-dimensional matrix that includes components, functions, processes and organization. Each element in the matrix is a failure scenario and represents the related failures within the corresponding dimensions. Conventional factors of failures are embodied in the FKN representation. They include event, detection, effect, severity, solution weight, cause, monitor, reappearance, operation, efficiency and precaution. The indexes of each factor are provided by subject matter experts and are set in accordance with the correlation between corresponding characteristics and failures
Failure knowledge based decision-making in product quality.
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Product quality-related decision-making using the Failure Knowledge Network (FKN) — The first step of the decision-making process is the identification of related failures and characteristics. The second step is determination of the important characteristics of the clusters. Next, there is a comparison between the characteristics of each target. Finally, the interdependent priorities of the characteristics are determined by analyzing dependencies among the targets and characteristics.
Failure knowledge based decision-making in product quality.
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One drawback to using Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) is that it has deficiencies in the expression of the relationship between different failure components. As a result it can not be used as a technique for knowledge formulation. One way to represent and share failure information is to construct a knowledge network of failure scenarios.
Source: Dai (2009). In: Dai,W., Maropoulos, P.G. &Tang, X.Q. (2010)

One of the reasons that product quality failures reoccur is that the knowledge of past failures is not well represented or readily-available to respective parties. One way to represent and share past failures is to construct a knowledge network of failure scenarios.
Source: Hatamura (2003). In: Dai,W., Maropoulos, P.G. &Tang, X.Q. (2010)

NPD performance can be measured in various ways: 1) Development lead time and cost (Roemer et al, 2000); 2) Quality level in terms of number of open issues remaining (e.g., bugs in software) at time of launch (Yassine et al, 2003); 3) The number of features implemented or supported (Karlsson & Ahlstrom, 1999); 4) The amount of discrepancy between a desired goal and the actual NPD outcome (O'Donnell & Duffy, 2002).
Source: O'Donnell & Duffy (2002). In: Yassine, A.A., Sreenivas, R.S., & Zhu, J. (2008)

Use the Internet to assist with customer and product support. Train salespeople and provide them answers to product questions online.
Source: The Baan Company: Case Study (2002), FileNew Corp: Case Study (2002), Tompkins Group: Case Study (2002). In: Ozer, M. (2003)

Level 1 — Single and Double-loop learning or as we have termed, Non-Duetero, is characterized as passive, routine based systems learning that supports current behavior, limits feedback, and reinforces a short-term orientation. Level 2 — Duetero learning is characterized as active, holistic learning, where continuous feedback is sought, and the process reinforces a long-term orientation.
Authors secondary research.
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Must be aware that examining product effectiveness as compared to productivity outcomes or marketplace performance will correlate higher with NPD success and cross functional integration
Meta-analysis. β = .185, p < .01
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Utilize novel estimation procedure for testing order entry models. Procedure is based on the generalized method of moments.
Survey. This model was developed and applied by the study's authors to overcome the limitations of regression-based methods.
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When measuring the success of NPD, use objective measures, such as sales or profits, instead of subjective measures
Meta-analysis. β = -.381, p < .01 (see Table 2 –H9)
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Assessment to identify the current and future new product development performance of a firm.
Survey.
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New product success — Dimensions include degree to which a new product’s profits exceeded or fell short of expectations; degree to which sales exceeded or fell short of expectations; degree to which a new product provided an entry point into an existing market for a new line of products; degree to which a new product created a market that was new to the industry.
Survey. Reported in Tables 1, 3 and 4 in the text; (see supporting literature in the next section).
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To measure the performance of individual business units, ten performance metrics were boiled down into two measures of performance: profitability of the business's total new product efforts; and impact of the total new product effort on the business.
Survey of 161 business units.
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Use the following metrics to measure the performance of new product development projects; earned revenue versus forecasted revenue, operating profits,customer satisfaction, and time to market.
Authors' research experience. Between 65% — 80% of companies use these metrics to measure performance.
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Engage in practices such as, formal audits, newsletters, reports or seminars, which help retain knowledge developed from prior new product development projects.
The hypothesis of companies promoting knowledge retention will have higher levels of intertemporal integration was found to be true. (B = .27, p < .05)
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Many factors can influence the utility of post project reviews. For example, if they are held too late there is a risk that key learning points will have been forgotten. Generally they should be held 6 months after launch. Similarly, the way the discussions are moderated will influence the generation and sharing of knowledge, an outside moderator is recommended. Any knowledge that the NPD generates should ideally be widely shared within the organization.
Case Study results.
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Results indicate that the changes and problems that occurred during the execution of the project contribute much more to learning than meticulous planning, which is based on past knowledge and proven solutions that have been devised to meet previously defined needs.
Survey of 475 research and development projects
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Sort, categorize and give meaning to knowledge in the company's current strategic context.
The hypothesis that companies that engage in activities that enable the interpretation of knowledge in it's current strategic context will have higher levels of intertemporal integration was found to be true. (B = .40, p < .001)
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The results indicate that metaphors and stories form an important part of post project review discussions and are used — consciously or subconsciously — to stimulate or to summarize key points. They also appear to enable the transfer of knowledge on complex technological points by making the discussions understandable to those without detailed knowledge.
Case Study — Researcher's analysis of interviews, documents and observations.
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Superstitious learning occurs when positive results are interpreted as learning outcomes in spite of little or no association. Success learning involves expectations or assumptions that what worked best in the past will work for the future. Competency traps occur when the organization refuses to adopt superior technology despite its availability. These negative impacts are avoidable if organizations implement learning within a transparent framework where employees are emotionally intelligent enough to recognize, avoid and manage such pitfalls
Source: Scott-Ladd, Chan (2004). In: Liepe, Z. & Sakalas, A. (2008)

The existence of an overarching relationship (historical or longstanding) between a researcher and relevant decision makers (knowledge users), where research utilization is only one activity in the larger, ongoing relationship, can be important for the utilization of research findings.
Source: Goering (2003); Mohrman (2001); Canadian Health Services Research Foundation (2002); Golden-Biddle (2003). In: Ginsburg, L.R., Lewis, S., Zackheim, L. & Casebeer, A. (2207)

A valuable way to capture knowledge generated during the course of a new product development (NPD) project is to hold a post project review (PPR). This is ‘‘a formal review of the project which examines the lessons which may be learned and used to the benefit of future projects’’ (Lane, 2000).
Source: Lane (2000). In: Koners, U., & Goffin, K. (2007)

An approach from psychology — repertory grid technique, appears to access tacit knowledge. The particular advantage of repertory grid technique is that it forces the respondent to think deeply and probes their tacit knowledge.
Source: Goffin (2002); Reed (2000). In: Koners, U., & Goffin, K. (2007)

Deutero learning is the most advanced style of learning and seeks to gain insight into the "learning process" itself, all while addressing the problems or opportunities at hand. This learning style also embraces an atmosphere where failures are fully tolerated, if not encouraged.
Source: Allee (1997), Argyris & Schon (1996), Bateson (1973)& McKee (1992). In: Liepe, Z. & Sakalas, A. (2008)

Operational effectiveness and strategic flexibility can be used to measure new product development performance.
Source: Brown & Eisenhardt, 1995. In: Bernasco, W., Weerd-Nederhof, P.C., Tillema, H.& Boer, H. (1999)

To assess the performance of product design, the following measures are often used: quality, time, competency, and costs directly related to profit.
Source: Ulrich & Eppinger, 2000; Wheelwright & Clark, 1992. In: Meybodi, M.Z. (2003)

By definition, tacit knowledge cannot be clearly expressed, documented, or observed and so it is necessary to use special data collection and analysis techniques. Metaphors and stories have been recognized in the literature as indicators of the generation and exchange of tacit knowledge.
Source: Cook and Brown (1999); Nonaka (1994). In: Koners, U., & Goffin, K. (2007)

Harter et al. (2000) argue that NPD quality, lead time and cost can all be simultaneously improved by reducing defects, waste, and rework in NPD project activities. They provide empirical evidence indicating that process maturity may contribute to greater project performance.
Source: Harter et al. (2000). In: Swink, M., Talluri, S., & Pandejpong, T. (2006)

One of the major reasons that concurrent engineering has gained broad acceptance is its impact on time. CE will get the manufacturing and marketing departments involved early in the development process. This will enable these departments to influence the design and obtain a more cost effective and high quality products. CE takes advantage of the latest advances in computer and information technologies to develop libraries with comprehensive accumulations of product and process designs. Therefore, knowledge gained during the development of one product is captured and then passed on to subsequent product developments as templates.
Source: Salomone (1995), Kamrani and Salhieh (2002). In: Kamrani, A., & Vijayan, A. (2006)